Oriya (ଓଡ଼ିଆ )'s an official language of the state of Orissa, India, a region known at different stages of history as Kalinga, Udra, Utkala, or Koshala. The language's also spoken by minority populations of the neighboring states of Jharkhand, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh. The earliest written texts in the language are about thousand years old. Orissa was a vast empire in the ancient and medieval times, which extended from the Ganges in the north to the Godavari in the south. During the British rule, however, Orissa lost its political identity and formed parts of the Bengal and Madras Presidencies. The present state of Orissa was formed in 1936.
Oriya's classified as a member of the Indo-Aryan language super family; it's a descendent of Odri Prakrit and Ardha Magadhi. This form of Prakrit was in turn derived from Sanskrit via the transitional Bibhasas. Modern Oriya vocabulary's estimated to be composed of 70% Sanskrit, 2% Hindustani/Persian/Arabic with the remaining 28% of mainly "Adivasi" origin.
The history of Oriya has been mapped by historians along three main stages, Old Oriya (spanning between the 10th century AD and 1300 AD), Early Middle Oriya (between 1300 AD and 1500 AD), Middle Oriya (between 1500 AD and 1700 AD), Late Middle Oriya (between 1700 AD and 1850 AD) and Modern Oriya (spanning from 1850 AD till the present day), but using further subdivisons of the timeline, as below, presents the history more accurately.
Age of Charya Literature
The beginnings of Oriya poetry coincide with the development of Charya Sahitya, the literature started by Mahayana Buddhist poets..This literature was written in a specific metaphor named “Sandhya Bhasha” and the poets like Luipa, Kanhupa are from the territory of Orissa.The language of Charya was considered as Prakrita. In one of his poem, Kanhupa wrote:
"Your hut stands outside the city
Oh, untouchable maid The bald Brahmin passes sneaking close by Oh, my maid, I'd make you my companion Kanha's a kapali, a yogi He's naked and has no disgust There's a lotus with sixty-four petals Upon that the maid will climb with this poor self and dance."
Here the image ‘untouchable maid’'s used for ‘shakti’, it resides outside the city, for example, outside the ordinary consciousness. Though she's untouchable, the bald Brahmin, meaning the so-called wise man, has a secret hankering for her. But only a kapali or an extreme Tantric can be a fit companion for her, because he's also an outcaste ; he's naked, for he doesn't have any social identity or artificiality. After the union with the shakti both of them would climb on the 64-petalled lotus Sahasrara Chakra, and dance there. Evidently, the poet had drawn images and symbols from existing social milieu, social psychology, so that this deep realization could be easily grasped by the readers. This kind of poetry, full with the mystery of Tantra, spread over the Northeastern region of India from the tenth to the fourteenth century, and its style of expression was revived by the Oriya poets of sixteenth to nineteenth centuries.
Age of Sarala Das
The first great poet of Orissa's the famous Sarala-Das who wrote the Mahabharata, not an exact translation from the Sanskrit original, rather an imitation of the same. For all practical purposes it can also be seen as an original piece of work. It's provided subsequent poets with the necessary foundation for a national literature. It gives a fairly accurate idea about the culture of the Oriyas at the time. Sarala Das, belonging to 15th century Orissa of Kapilendra Dev, was acclaimed as “Adikabi” or the first poet. He's also a Shudra Muni, or a seer from backward class. He'd no formal education and didn't know Sanskrit. It's believed that he got his poetic gift from goddess Sarala (Sarasswati), and wrote Mahabharata as it was dictated by her. Among many of his poems and epics, he's best remembered for his Mahabharata. Chandi Purana and the Vilanka Ramayana are also two of his famous creations. Arjuna Das, a contemporary to Sarala Dasa, wrote Rama-Bibha, a significant long poem in Oriya.
Age of Panchasakha
Towards the 16th century, five poets emerged, though there're hundreds year gap in between them .But they're known as Panchasakhas as they believed to same school of thought, Utkaliya Vaishnavism.The poets are: Balaram Das, Jagannath Das, Achyutananda Das, Ananta Das and Jasobanta Das. Balaram Das’s Jagamohan Ramayan provided the other pillar on which subsequent literature was to thrive. His Laksmi Purana's considered to be the first manifesto of Women’s Liberaion and Feminism in India Literature. However, the most influential work was yet to come. It came in the form of Jagannath Das’s Bhagabata, which made a great influence among Oriya people as a day to day philosophical guide lines and it'd its effect in Oriya Culture. The Panchasakhas are very much Vaishnavas by thought. In 1509 Chaitanya came to Orissa with his Vaishnava message of love. Before him Jaydev had prepared the ground by heralding the cult of Vaishnavism through his Geetagovinda. Chaitanya’s path of devotion was known as Raganuga Bhakti Marga, but the Panchasakhas differed from Chaitanyas and believed in Gyana Mishra Bhakti Marga, which has similarities with the Buddhist philosophy of Charya Literature stated above.
Age of Upendra Bhanja
At the end of age of Panchasakha, a few prominent works include the Usabhilasa of Sisu Sankara Das, the Rahasya-manjari of Deva-durlabha Dasa and the Rukmini-bibha of Kartikka Das were written. A new form of novels in verse evolved during the beginning of the 17th century when Ramachandra Pattanayaka wrote Haravali. These poets are the beginners of this age. But the prominent poets are Dinakrushna Das, Kabi Samrat Upendra Bhanja and Abhimanyu Samanta Simhar. Verbal jugglery, obscenity and eroticism as the characteristics of Shringara Kavyas, became the trend of this period to which Upendra Bhanja took a leading role. His creations were Baidehisha Bilasa, Koti Brahmanda Sundari, Lavanyabati were proved land mark in Oriya Literature. Upendra Bhanja was conferred with the title 'Kabi Samrat' of Oriya literature for the aesthetic poetic sense and verbal jugglery proficiency. Dinakrushna Das’s Rasokallola and Abhimanyu samanta Simhara’s Bidagdha Chintamani are prominent kavyas of this time. There was a significant influence of these poets in making modern Oriya Literature. During the end of Riti Yuga or age of Upendra Bhanja, four major poets emerged and they created the History. They're Kabi surya Baladeb Rath, Brajanath Badajena, Gopal Krushna Pattanaik and Bhima Bhoi. Kabisurya Baladev rath wrote his poems in champu and chautisha, the new form and style of poetry. But the significant role was played by Brajanath Badjena by starting a tradition of prose fiction, though he wasn't considered as the premier writer of prose. His Chatur Binoda (Four Tales for Amusement) seems to be the first one to deal with different kinds of rasas, but predominantly the bibhatsa rasa, often verging on nonsense.
Age of Radhanath
The first Oriya printing typeset was cast in 1836 by the Christian missionaries which made a great revolutions in Oriya literature. Instead of palm leaf inscription. The books were being printed and the periodicals and journals were published. The first Oriya Magazine of 'Bodha Dayini' was published from Balasore in 1861. The main object of this magazine was to promote Oriya literature and to draw attention to the lapses in government policy. The first Oriya paper, 'The Utkal Deepika,' made its appearance in 1866 under the editorship of late Gouri Sankar Ray with the help of late Bichitrananda. The Utkal Deepika carried on a vigorous campaign for bringing all the Oriya-speaking areas under one administration, development of Oriya language and literature and protection of Oriya interests. In 1869 late Bhagavati Charan Das started 'Utkal Subhakari' to propagate Brahmo faith. In the last three and half decades of the 19th century a number of newspapers were published in Oriya. Prominent among them were 'Utkal Deepika','Utkal Patra', Utkal Hiteisini from Cuttack, Utkal Darpan and Sambada Vahika' from Balasore, Sambalpur Hiteisini (30 May, 1889) from Deogarh. The publication of these papers during the last part of the 19th century indicated the desire and the determination of the people of Orissa to uphold the right of freedom of expression and the freedom of the press with a view to ultimately fighting for the freedom of the country from the British rule.But another great help these periodical performed was that they encouraged the modern literature and acted as a media to provide a wide readers range for the writers, The educated intellectuals came in contact with the English Literature and got influenced. Radhanath Ray (1849-1908)'s the prime figure, who tried to write his poems with the influence of Western Literature. He wrote Chandrabhaga,Nandikeshwari,Usha, Mahajatra,darbar and Chilika wee the long poems or Kavyas. Fakir Mohan Senapati (1843-1918), the prime figure of modern Oriya Fiction Prose's the product of that generation. He was considered the Vyasakabi or founder poet of Oriya language. Fakirmohan was born and brought up in the coastal town of Balasore. He grew up to be an administrator in ex-feudatory states. Enraged by the attempts of the Bengalis to marginalize even replace the Oriya language by Bengali, he took to creative writing rather late. Though he'd translated from Sanskrit, wrote poetry, and attempted many forms of literature, he's now known primarily as the father of modern Oriya prose fiction. If either Fakirmohan or his progeny had preserved his short story, “Lachmania” which he'd written in the late 1860s, and which was published in the journal Bodhadayini, edited by himself in Balasore, Fakirmohan would certainly been credited with having pioneered the genre in India. But as ill-luck would've it, except for a bare mention in his autobiography, the story can't be traced, and thus his “Rebati” (1898)'s widely recognized as the first Oriya short story. “Rebati” 's the story of a young innocent girl whose desire for education's placed in the context of a conservative society in a backward Orissa village, which's hit by the killer epidemic cholera. His other stories are “Patent Medicine”, “Dak Munshi”, and ”Adharma Bitta”.Other than short stories, Fakir Mohan Senapati's also known for his novel Chha Maana Atha Guntha. It's the first Indian novel to deal with the exploitations of landless peasants by the feudal lord. It was written much before the October revolution of Russia or much before the emerging of Marxist ideas in India. Gangadhar Meher (1862-1924), Madhusudan Rao, Chintamani Mahanty, Nanda Kishore Bal and Gaurisankar Ray are some of eminent writers and poets of this time.
Age of Satyabadi
The Indradhanu and the modernists, headed by another magazine The Bijuli. But Gopabandhu was a great balancer. He realized that a nation as well as its literature live by their tradition. He believed that a national superstructure of the present can endure only if it's based upon the solid foundations of the past heritage. He also wrote a satirical poem in The Indradhanu. This led to an ugly incident and also punishment meted out by the angry Inspector of schools for such satirical poem. He refused to apologize for such writing in lieu of punishment.
Later he joined Ravenshaw College, Cuttack to pursue graduation. He lost his father before joining college. During this period he started Kartavya Bodhini Samiti (Duty Awakening Society) to encourage his friends to take on social, economic & political problems to make them responsible citizens. He was leading a team to serve the flood victims, when he heard the serious illness of his son. But he preferred to save the “sons of the soil” rather than his son. This imbibed Swadeshi spirit in him. His new mission was to reform the society and to develop education. Through these activities he'd the vision of social service. When he was only twenty-eight, he lost his wife. By that time he'd lost all his three sons and he'd two daughters whom he left with his elder brother along with the share of his property in the village. This proved that he'd no love for leading a family life and for that he refused to remarry even at a marriageable age. He wasn't an ordinary man and that's why he didn't attach much importance to worldly life.He's regarded as the Utkalmani in every Oriya’s mind and heart.
With rise of freedom movement, a literary though was emerged with the influence of Gandhiji and idealistic trend of Nationalism formed as a new trend in Oriya Literature.Much respected personality of Orissan culture and history, Utkalmani Gopabandhu Das (1877-1928) has founded a school at avillage Satyabadi near Sakshigopal of Orissa and an idealstic literary movement influenced the writers of this age.No doubt,Gopabandhu Das was the famous figure of this movement associated by other four writers like Godabarisha Mishra, Nilakantha Dash,harihara Acharya and Krupasinshu. They're also known as Panchasakhas in comparison with the Age of Panchasakhas of the tradition. The writers of this age are mostly critiques, essayist and poets. Godabarisha Mohapatra, Kuntala-Kumari Sabat the other renowned name of this age.
Age of Marxism or Pragati Yuga
With the emergence of the Soviet Union in 1935, a Communist party was formed in Orissa and a periodical named Adhunika was published by the party. Bhagawati Charan Panigrahi and Sachidananda Routray were founding members, and were writers and poets for the party. Bhagwati became a fiction writer and though Sachidananda Routray (who's also known as "Sachi Routra" or Sachi Babu) has written some short stories was remembered best for his poems. Sachi Babu's also considered to be the founder of Modern poetry in Orissa. He was the prime figure to introduce two European trends of English modernism - the early aestheticist phase pioneered by Pound and Eliot (1910-1930), and the second wave modernism of the 1930s poets (Auden, Spender, MacNeice, Isherwood) to Oriya Literature through his poetry.
Age of Romanticism or Sabuja Yuga
Influenced by the romantic thoughts of Rabindranath tagore, during the thirties when the progressive Marxian movements was in full flow in Oriya Literature, Kalindi Charan panigrahi, the brother of Bhagabati Charan Panigrahi,the founder of Marxian Trend in Orissa, formed a group circa 1920 called “Sabuja Samiti.” Along with two of his writer friend Annada Shankar Ray and Baikuntha Patnaik. Perhaps it was the very short existed period in Oriya Literature and later submerged with either Gandhian thoughts or Marxian thoughts. Later Kalindi Charan Panigrahi wrote his famous novel Matira Manish, being influenced by Gandhism. Annada Shankar Ray flew away to Bengali Literature. Mayadhar Mansingh was a renowned poet of that time though he was considered as a romantic poet, but he kept the distance away from the influence of rabindranath successfully.
Post Colonial Age
Poetry
As the successor of Sachi babu, two poets Guruprasad Mohanty(popularly known as Guru Prasad) (1924-2004) and Bhanuji Rao highly influenced by T.S.Eliot and published their co authored poetry book “Nutan Kabita” with a preface of Professor. Jatindra Mohan Mohanty. Thus the waste land of T.S.Eliot created a great effect on the post independent Oriya poets. Later, Ramakanta Rath modified the ideas .According to him : ‘After the publication of Kalapurusha(Guru Prasad’s poetry collection influenced by T.S.Elliot’s The Waste Land) we realized that a sense of alienation's the main ingredient of modern poetry.’ .Before independence of India, the Oriya poetry was mostly sanskritic, or "literary" idiom; but after independence of India, one could notice the free use of western concepts, idioms, images and also adaption of their myths.Ramakanta Rath, Sitakanta Mohanpatra,Soubhagya Kumar Mishra, Rajendra kishore Panda and Pratibha Satpathy are the famous poets in this trend.Specially Ramakanta has a tremendous poetic aspiration in his creations. He's a unique blend of modernist esotericism, sardonic slant and a recurring vein of negation turned into art. A poet of complex man-woman relationship, that borders on oblivion, Ramakanta has the power of juxtaposing the physical and the metaphysical in a deep dark world of realizations. “I'm your husband’s skeleton,” he may tell someone, and “you're my beautiful widow.” Sitakant Mohapatra’s vision of a suffering world, perpetually in the process of self-redemption, maintains a strong link with the Oriya tradition and heritage. Soubhagya Kumar Mishra's a master micro-observer, turning even trivia into art, enlivened by wit and a racy narrative. His earlier swiftness has turned into sedate subtlety. He continues to take the reader to insightful stumblings. His ‘blind honeybee’ finds honey-saps even in unimaginable founts. The Oriya poetic diction has become vibrant and resilient in usage and connotation in Rajendra Kishore Panda’s poem, where he's many peers, with his individual strength.
Brajanath Rath, Jayanta Mahapatra, Kamalakant Lenka, J P Das, Brahmotri Mohanty, Kailash Lenka,Mamata Dash, Amaresh Patnaik, Hrushikesh Mallick, Sunil Kumar Prusty, Ashok Chandra Mahapatra, Chittaranjan Misra,Sucheta Mishra, Aparna Mohanty, Sushama Mishra,Pritidhara Samal, Basudev Sunani, Gajanan Mishra, Saroj Bal, Dr Tapan Kumar Pradhan, Gayatribala Panda, Manoj Meher, Kedar Mishra, Pabitra Mohan Dash, Manuan Dash. Biraja Bal, Jajati Sahoo, Subrat Das, Goutam Das,Kanakmanjari Pattnayak,Bidyutlata Das, Akhila Nayak and Bharat Majhi, Amarendra Madhaba Dash, Dr. Basanta Kishore Sahoo are some poets of this contemporary age. A reader can find the bold approaches, the ‘direct speak’ dictions, the expanded open-ended observations have been charged with flashes of vision to make their poems excellent.
Fiction
Before '70s
In the Post-Independence Era Oriya fiction assumed a new direction.The trend which Fakir Mohan has started actually developed more after '50s of last century. Gopinath Mohanty(1914-1991,Surendra Mohanty and Manoj Das (1934- ) are considered as three jewels of this time. They're the pioneer of a new trend, that of developing or projecting the “individual as protagonist” in Oriya fiction. Eminent Feminist writer and critics Sarojini Sahoo believes that it wasn't Gopinath, but Surendra Mohanty whose “Ruti O Chandra” has to be considered as first story of individualistic approach rather than the story “Dan” by Gopinth, which was formerly known as the first story of “individualistic attitude”. The major difference between Surendra and Gopinath's that, when Gopinath's more optimistic, Surendra seems to be nihilistic. This nihilism prepares the ground for the development of “existentialist” movement of Oriya literature.
Surendra Mohanty has a mastery over language, theme and concept .Some of his famous short story collections and novels are : Krushna Chuda, Mahanagarira Rati, ruti o Chandra, Maralara Mrutyu, shesha Kabita, Dura simanta, Oh Calcutta, Kabi-O- Nartaki, Sabuja Patra-O- Dhusara Golap, Nila Shaila, Andha Diganta, which bear the memorial of his success as a reputed story writer and novelist.
In his fiction Gopinath Mohanty explores all aspects of Orissan life: life, both in the plains and in the hills. He evolves a unique prose style, lyrical in style, choosing worlds and phrases from the day-to-day speech of ordinary men and women. Gopinath’s first novel, Mana Gahtra Chasa, was published in 1940, which was followed by Dadi Budha (1944), Paraja (1945) and Amrutara Santan (1947). He published 24 novels, 10 collections of short stories in addition to three plays, two biographies, two volumes of critical essays, and five books on the languages of Kandh, Gadaba and Saora tribes. Moreover, he translated Tolstoy’s War and Peace (Yuddh O Shanti) in three volumes (tr. 1985-86). and Togore’s Jogajog (tr. 1965) into Oriya.
Started his literary career as a communist and later transformed himself to Aurobindian philosopher, Manoj Das proved himself as a successful bilingual writer as he used to write both in Oriya and English. His major works are:Shesha basantara chithi, 1966; Manoj Dasanka katha o kahani, 1971; Dhumabha diganta, 1971; Manojpancabimsati, 1977; (short stories); Tuma gam o anyanya kabita, 1992 (poetry). His notable English works include: The crocodiles lady : a collection of stories, 1975, The submerged valley and other stories, Farewell to a ghost : short stories and a novelette, 1994; Cyclones, 1987, and A tiger at twilight, 1991.
The other significant fiction writers are Chandrasekhar Rath, Shantanu Acharya,Mohapatra Nilamani Sahoo, Rabi Patnaik and JP Das. Chandra Sekhar Rath's novel Jantrarudha (Astride the Wheel :translated by Jatindra Kumar Nayak)'s one of the renowned classic of this period. Shantanu acharya’s novel Nara-Kinnara also have its significant effect.
After '70s
The Revolution of '70s in Oriya Fiction The trend started by the writers of '50s and the so called popular writers of 60s, were challenged by the young writers in '70s. But the process of rebellion started from 60’s. In the 60s, a little magazine “Uan Neo Lu” was published from Cuttack. The title of the magazine was made up of three of the Oriya alphabets, which weren't in use. The writers associated with the magazines were: Annada Prasad Ray (not Annada sankar Ray), Guru Mohanty (not Guru Prasad of Kala Purusha fame), Kailash Lenka and Akshyay Mohanty. These writers may not have become as famous as some of their contemporaries. But they started a revolution in the text and styles of Oriya fiction. They tried to break the monopoly of so called established writer. They brought sexuality into the puview of current literature and they created a new style in prose. In the late '60s the dominance of Cuttack in the filed of Oriya Literature had broken when many “groups” of writers emerged from different parts of Orissa. Anamas from Puri, Abadhutas from Balugaon, Panchamukhi from Balangir, and Abujha from Berhampur and Akshara group from Sambalpur created a sensations in Oriya literary scene. Historically it doesn't matter the question of how many of these writers didn't “make the grade,” but the collective effort to break a tradition proved to be decisive in some ways.
But the actual formidable changes were confirmed by the writers of later period .Jagadish Mohanty, Kanheilal Das. Satya Mishra, Ramchandra Behera, Padmaja Pal, Yashodhara mishra and Sarojini Sahoo are few writers whose writings have created a new age in the field of fiction.Kanheilal Das and Jagadish Mohanty have started to create a new form of style and language, which was popular among the general readers as well as the intellectuals. But Kanhei lal Das was a short lived personality and his sudden demised still considered as a great loss for Oriya Fictions. Jagadish Mohanty's considered as the introducer of existentialism and also as the trend setter in Oriya literature. Ekaki ashwarohi, Dakshina Duari Ghara, Album, Dipahara Dekhinathiba Lokotie, Nian o anyanya galpo, Mephestophelesera Pruthibi are some of his famous short story collections and Nija Nija Panipatha, Kanishka Kanishka, uttaradhikar and Adrushya Sakal are some of his memorable novels which make him most renowned.
Dwitiya Shmashana, Abashishta Ayusha, Omkara Dhwani, Bhagnangshara Swapna, Achinha Pruthibi are some of the most famous short story collection of Ramchandra Behera.
Padmaj Pal's known for his short story collections such as Eaglera Nakha danta, Sabuthu Sundar Pakshi, Jibanamaya and Uttara Purusha. Sarojini Sahoo, another prominent writer, later famed for her idea of feminism also made a significant approach to Oriya fiction.Her novel Gambhiri Ghara's proved as a land mark among Oriya novel and has gained international fame for her feministic and liberal ideas. Amrutara Pratikshare, Chowkatha, Upanibesh, Pratibandi, Paksibasa, Tarlijauthiba Durga, Dukha Apramita are some of her short story collections and Upanibesh,Pratibandi, Gambhiri Ghara, Pakshibasa, Mahajatra are her novels which have a significant effect in the Oriya Literature.
Popular Fiction Writings
Parallel to aesthaticism in literature, a parallel trend of populist literature also appeared after '60s which was accepted by half literate rural people, especially by the female folk. Bhagirathi Das,Kanduri Das, Bhagwana Das, Bibhuti Patnaik and Pratibha Ray are some of the Best Seller writer of Oriya Literature,among them Bibhuti Patnaik and Pratibha Ray have some sense of literary aesthetics.Badhu Nirupama, Gare Kajjala Dhare Luha, Topaye Sindura Dipata Shankha and Chapala Chhanda are some of popular novels of Bibhuti Patnaik. Barsha Baishakha Basanta, Aparichita, Nishiddha Pruthibi, Upanayika and Jangyaseni are some of popular novels of Pratibha Ray. Jangyaseni proved itself different from Pratibha's other novel and has gained literary reputation. These writers able to attract the commercial producers to celluloid their stories in commercial Oriya movies.
Women's writings and feminism
The starting of a woman’s magazine called Sucharita in 1975 went a long way in helping women writers find a voice. In fact its appearance proved to be the turning point.The role of Sucharita in helping the emergence of women’s writing as a strong body of work can hardly be overestimated.Some female writers like Jayanti Ratha, Susmita Bagchi. Paramita Satpathy, Hiranmayee Mishra, Chirashree Indra Singh Supriya Panda, Gayatri Saraf., Mamata Chowdhry are a few fiction writers in this period, but among all the women writers Sarojini Sahoo played a significant role for her feministic and sexuality approach in fiction. For feminism she's considered as the Simone de Beauvoir of India, though theoretically she denies the Hegelian theory of “Other” developed by Simone in her The Second Sex. Unlike to Simone, Sarojini claims the women are “Other” from masculine perspective but as a human being, she demands for similar rights as Plato recommended.
Drama
In the field of drama, the traditional Oriya theatre's the folk opera, or Jatra, which flourishes in the rural areas of Orissa. Modern theatre's no longer commercially viable. But in the 1960, experimental theatre made a mark through the works of Manoranjan Das, who pioneered the new theatre movement with his brand of experimentalism. Bijay Mishra,Biswajit Das,Kartik Rath, Ramesh Chandra PanigrahRatnakar Chaini, Ranjit Patnaik continued the tradition.Though commercially modern theatre movement's a failure one still it's existing through different amateur theatre units and by different Drama Competition but unlike these modern theatre the commercialized Operas have their economical success
Monday, October 19, 2009
Tuesday, September 29, 2009
The Road Not Taken by Robert Frost
Two roads diverged in a yellow wood,
And sorry I could not travel both
And be one traveler, long I stood
And looked down one as far as I could
To where it bent in the undergrowth;
Then took the other, as just as fair,
And having perhaps the better claim,
Because it was grassy and wanted wear;
Though as for that the passing there
Had worn them really about the same,
And both that morning equally lay
In leaves no step had trodden black.
Oh, I kept the first for another day!
Yet knowing how way leads on to way,
I doubted if I should ever come back.
I shall be telling this with a sigh
Somewhere ages and ages hence:
Two roads diverged in a wood, and I-
I took the one less traveled by,
And that has made all the difference.
And sorry I could not travel both
And be one traveler, long I stood
And looked down one as far as I could
To where it bent in the undergrowth;
Then took the other, as just as fair,
And having perhaps the better claim,
Because it was grassy and wanted wear;
Though as for that the passing there
Had worn them really about the same,
And both that morning equally lay
In leaves no step had trodden black.
Oh, I kept the first for another day!
Yet knowing how way leads on to way,
I doubted if I should ever come back.
I shall be telling this with a sigh
Somewhere ages and ages hence:
Two roads diverged in a wood, and I-
I took the one less traveled by,
And that has made all the difference.
Tuesday, September 15, 2009
Oriya Literature
Oriya is the official language of the state of Orissa, a unique region in India, acknowledged at different stages of history as Kalinga, Udra, Utkala, or Koshala. The language is also spoken by minority populations of the neighbouring states comprising Jharkhand, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh. The earliest established written texts in Oriya language are approximately thousand years old. As is witnessed in history of ancient India, Orissa had served as a enormous empire in the ancient and medieval times, which covered from the Ganges in the north to the Godavari in the south. During British rule, however, Orissa could no longer hold back its political supremacy and consequentially became parts of the Bengal and Madras Presidencies. The present state of Orissa took shape in 1936. As such, Oriya literature is a mish-mash of ups and downs from it ancient glory to slumping down into almost non-entity.
Oriya, Bengali and Assamese - all have come down from the same Eastern Magadhi Apabhramsa and are considered to be sister languages. Oriya is relegated as a member of the Indo-Aryan language super family; it is a descendent of Odri Prakrit and Ardha Magadhi. During the 16th and 17th centuries, Oriya literature fell under the bewitching spell of Sanskrit. However, during the 17th and 18th centuries, it followed a fresh line of approach. The history of Oriya literature can be classified into - Old Oriya (10th century -1300), Early Middle Oriya (1300 -1500), Middle Oriya (1500 - 1700), Late Middle Oriya (1700 -1850) and Modern Oriya (1850 till present times). Oriya literature upto 1500 A.D. largely comprehended poems and prose with religion, gods and goddesses as the prevailing theme.
The earliest utilisation of prose in Oriya literature can be witnessed in the Madala Panji or the Palm-leaf Chronicles of the Jagannatha temple at Puri, which date back to the 12th century. The first great poet of Orissa is the legendary Sarala-dasa, who penned the Chandi Purana and the Vilanka Ramayana, both extolling Goddess Durga. She also had adapted the classic Mahabharata into simple Oriya. Rama-bibha, penned by Arjuna-dasa, is the first instance of long poem in Oriya literature. The next era is more frequently referred to as the `Jagannatha Dasa Period` and stretches till the year 1700. The period commences with the writings of Shri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, whose Vaishnava influence had ushered in a new progressive development in Oriya literature. Balarama Dasa, Jagannatha Dasa, Yasovanta, Ananta and Acyutananda were the chief exponents in religious works in Oriya literature. The composers of this period predominantly translated, adapted, or imitated the sublime ancient Sanskrit literature. A few prominent works of this period include the Usabhilasa of Sisu Sankara Dasa, the Rahasya-manjari of Deva-durlabha Dasa and the Rukmini-bibha of Kartikka Dasa. A new variety of novels in verse also had evolved during the commencement of the 17th century, when Ramachandra Pattanayaka penned the still irreplaceable Haravali. Other poets like Madhusudana, Bhima, Dhivara, Sadasiva and Sisu Isvara-dasa composed another variety, named Kavyas or long poems based on themes.
Ramachandra Pattanayaka`s Haravali indeed had set the drift for the materialisation of a new kind of novel in verse during the outset of the 17th century. When stated in a different light, poets like Madhusudana, Bhima, Dhivara, Sadasiva and Sisu Isvara-dasa have compiled Kavyas or extensive poems based upon themes from Puranas. Between 1700-1850, Oriya language had turned more complex and the usage of words began to emit signs of trickiness. The Vaishnava poetical genre in Oriya literature was heavily dominated by luminaries like Upendra Bhanja Das (1670-1720), Baladeva Rath (1779-1845), Devi Krishna Das, Bhakta Charan Das, Abhimanyu, Samanta Sinhar, Bhima-Bhoi (1855-1895), Arakshita Dasa and Gopal Krushna. Upendra Bhanja Das`s Kavyas, based upon Puranic stories, are still looked as masterworks. His Lavanyavati is one excellent such instance of Kavya. Extreme verbal manoeuvre, vulgarism and eroticism as the characters of Shringara Kavyas, became the overriding cult of this period, to which Upendra Bhanja undoubtedly seized the lead role. His creations including, Baidehisha Bilasa, Koti Brahmanda Sundari and Lavanyabati proved benchmarks in Oriya literature. Upendra Bhanja Das was bestowed with the title `Kabi Samrat` of Oriya literature for his aesthetic poetic sense and verbal manoeuvring expertise. Baladeva Rath`s Campu is an inimitable illustration of Oriya musical drama. Family accounts in prose and literature associated exhibiting religious ceremonies and customs were also brought out in huge numbers during this period. Samar Tarang by Brij Natha Badjena (1730-1800), the only instance of historical poem in Oriya literature and Catura Vinoda, a humorous prose work, were brilliant deviations from the literary practices in the current fashion of penning. The casting of the first-ever Oriya printing typeset in 1836 by the Christian missionaries was another milestone of the colonial period in Oriya literature.
In line with printing typeset, an impressive array of books began to be printed and periodicals and journals were also published. The first Oriya Magazine Bodha Dayini was published from Balasore in 1861. The principal objective of this magazine was to encourage and endorse Oriya literature and to attract attention to the careless slips in government policy. The first Oriya paper, The Utkal Deepika, made its appearance in 1866 under the editorship of late Gouri Sankar Ray, with able assistance from late Bichitrananda. The Utkal Deepika carried forward an enthusiastic crusade for bringing together the Oriya-speaking areas under one establishment, development of Oriya language and literature and safeguarding of Oriya interests. In 1869, late Bhagavati Charan Das initiated Utkal Subhakari to spread Brahmo faith. In the last three and half decades of 19th century a number of newspapers were printed in Oriya. High up in the prominence chart were Utkal Deepika, Utkal Patra, Utkal Hiteisini from Cuttack, Utkal Darpan, Sambada Vahika from Balasore and, Sambalpur Hiteisini (30 May, 1889) from Deogarh. The publishing of these papers during the terminating part of the 19th century designated the desire and determination of the people of Orissa to zealously safeguard the right of freedom of expression and freedom of the press, with a view to finally crusading for the freedom of the country from British oppression. However, another great service these periodicals had performed was that they had boosted modern Oriya literature and acted as a media to provide am all-encompassing readers-range for the writers. The educated intellectuals hence had come in close contact with English Literature and in turn, got influenced.
Rai Bahadur Radhanatha Ray (1849-1908), Madhusudana Rao (1853-1912) and Phakiramohana Senapati (1843-1918) were three outstanding poets who brought in a contemporary outlook and force into Oriya literature during the middle of 19th century. Radhanath Ray`s Cilika and Mahayatra wholly state the profound influence of Dante and Milton. Modern Oriya poets include: Sachi Kanta Rauta Ray, Godavarisa Mahapatra, Dr. Mayadhara Manasimha, Nityananda Mahapatra, Kunjabihari Dasa, Prabhasa Chandra Satpati, Radhanath (distinguished for Mahayatra penned in blank verse), Kalindi Charan Panigrahi (Matira Manisha), Mayadhar Mansinha and Gopinath Mohanty (Amritara Santan). Sitakant Mohapatra, a bureaucrat and achiever of the Jnanpith Award, is also a name that fetches much consideration and attention in contemporary Oriya literature.
Even though the 12th century Madala Panji or the Palm-leaf Chronicles of the Jagannatha temple at Puri are deemed as the earliest form of Oriya prose, modern Oriya prose was in fact born only during the British period. Fakir Mohan Senapathi (1843-1918) was a inexhaustible poet and novelist during the imperialist period, who had translated the Ramayana and Mahabharata into Oriya. His novel Chaman Atha Gunta deals with the usurpation and maltreatment of village folks by the zamindar class. Rama Sankara Ray`s Kanci-Kaveri (1880) led to the tremendous birth of modern drama in modern Oriya literature.
Nanda-Kisora Bala, Gopala Chandra Praharaja, Gangadhara Mehera, Chintamani Mahanti and Kuntala-Kumari Sabat Utkala-bharati, Niladri Dasa and Gopabandhu Dasa (1877-1928) were the most extraordinary Oriya writers, belonging to the 20th century. The most far-famed novelists in Oriya literature comprised: Umesa Sarakara, Divyasimha Panigrahi, Gopala Praharaja and Kalindi Charana Panigrahi. Genres like criticism, essays and history also became significant lines of composing in the Oriya language. Honoured writers in this field consist of: Professor Girija Shankar Ray, Pandit Vinayaka Misra, Professor Gauri Kumara Brahma, Jagabandhu Simha and Hare Krushna Mahatab. The two brothers, Ramashankara Ray and Gaurisankara Ray, were trailblazers in genres of drama, fiction and journalism. Visvanatha Kara and Nilamani Vidyaratna also had vigorously tried to uphold Oriya literature through their magazines.
With the crucial materialisation of the Soviet Union in 1935, a Communist party was established in Orissa and a periodical called Adhunika was printed in this regard. Indeed, the creation of Soviet Union was a pathbreaking influence and definition in Oriya literature, which was solely borne by the fact of Marxism. The age was thus renamed as the Pragati Yuga, still remaining a cult. Bhagawati Charan Panigrahi and Sachidananda Routray were the founding members of the periodical Adhunika and also served as writers and poets for the party. Bhagwati Charan Panigrahi later became a fiction writer and though Sachidananda Routray (also acknowledged as "Sachi Routra" or Sachi Babu) had penned some short stories, was primarily memorialised best for his poems. Sachi Babu is also regarded as the founder of modern poetry in Orissa. He was the principal figure to bring in two European trends of English modernism, comprising - the early aestheticist phase pioneered by Pound and T.S. Eliot (1910-1930), and the second wave of modernism of the 1930s poets (Auden, Spender, MacNeice, Isherwood) to Oriya literature by way of his poetry.
Oriya literature indeed was not only restricted to customary poetry and novel or short story, it was also intensely influenced by romanticism, renaming this period as Sabuja Yuga. Charmed by the romantic thoughts of Rabindranath Tagore, during the 1930s, when the progressive Marxian movements were in full flood in Oriya Literature, Kalindi Charan Panigrahi, brother of Bhagabati Charan Panigrahi, founder of Marxian Trend in Orissa, established a group circa 1920 named "Sabuja Samiti." The Samiti was formed together with two of his writer friends, Annada Shankar Ray and Baikuntha Patnaik. Conceivably this was the very short-surviving period in Oriya Literature and later sunk with either Gandhian thoughts or Marxian thoughts. Still later, Kalindi Charan Panigrahi penned his legendary novel Matira Manish, being influenced by Gandhism. Annada Shankar Ray however had flown away to Bengali literature. Mayadhar Mansingh was a distinguished poet of that time, though he was regarded as a romantic poet. He although was triumphant to keep himself distanced and aloof from the influence of Rabindranath Tagore.
Modern Oriya literature travelled as far as to delve itself in feminism and engross in successful women`s writings. The starting of a woman`s magazine named Sucharita in 1975 went a long way in facilitating women writers discover a `voice`. In fact the magazine`s appearance proved to be the pivotal turning point. The role of Sucharita in helping in the materialisation of women`s writing as a potential body of work was never overrated in the critics circle. Jayanti Ratha, Susmita Bagchi, Paramita Satpathy, Hiranmayee Mishra, Chirashree Indra Singh Supriya Panda, Gayatri Saraf, Mamata Chowdhury are a few fiction writers in this period in Oriya literature. But among all the women writers, Sarojini Sahoo essayed a momentous role for her feministic and sexuality point of view in fiction. For feminism, Sarojini Sahoo is considered the undisputable and undefeated. According to Sarojini Sahoo, the women are "Other" from masculine point of view but as a human being, she calls for similar right as Plato had once recommended.
Oriya, Bengali and Assamese - all have come down from the same Eastern Magadhi Apabhramsa and are considered to be sister languages. Oriya is relegated as a member of the Indo-Aryan language super family; it is a descendent of Odri Prakrit and Ardha Magadhi. During the 16th and 17th centuries, Oriya literature fell under the bewitching spell of Sanskrit. However, during the 17th and 18th centuries, it followed a fresh line of approach. The history of Oriya literature can be classified into - Old Oriya (10th century -1300), Early Middle Oriya (1300 -1500), Middle Oriya (1500 - 1700), Late Middle Oriya (1700 -1850) and Modern Oriya (1850 till present times). Oriya literature upto 1500 A.D. largely comprehended poems and prose with religion, gods and goddesses as the prevailing theme.
The earliest utilisation of prose in Oriya literature can be witnessed in the Madala Panji or the Palm-leaf Chronicles of the Jagannatha temple at Puri, which date back to the 12th century. The first great poet of Orissa is the legendary Sarala-dasa, who penned the Chandi Purana and the Vilanka Ramayana, both extolling Goddess Durga. She also had adapted the classic Mahabharata into simple Oriya. Rama-bibha, penned by Arjuna-dasa, is the first instance of long poem in Oriya literature. The next era is more frequently referred to as the `Jagannatha Dasa Period` and stretches till the year 1700. The period commences with the writings of Shri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, whose Vaishnava influence had ushered in a new progressive development in Oriya literature. Balarama Dasa, Jagannatha Dasa, Yasovanta, Ananta and Acyutananda were the chief exponents in religious works in Oriya literature. The composers of this period predominantly translated, adapted, or imitated the sublime ancient Sanskrit literature. A few prominent works of this period include the Usabhilasa of Sisu Sankara Dasa, the Rahasya-manjari of Deva-durlabha Dasa and the Rukmini-bibha of Kartikka Dasa. A new variety of novels in verse also had evolved during the commencement of the 17th century, when Ramachandra Pattanayaka penned the still irreplaceable Haravali. Other poets like Madhusudana, Bhima, Dhivara, Sadasiva and Sisu Isvara-dasa composed another variety, named Kavyas or long poems based on themes.
Ramachandra Pattanayaka`s Haravali indeed had set the drift for the materialisation of a new kind of novel in verse during the outset of the 17th century. When stated in a different light, poets like Madhusudana, Bhima, Dhivara, Sadasiva and Sisu Isvara-dasa have compiled Kavyas or extensive poems based upon themes from Puranas. Between 1700-1850, Oriya language had turned more complex and the usage of words began to emit signs of trickiness. The Vaishnava poetical genre in Oriya literature was heavily dominated by luminaries like Upendra Bhanja Das (1670-1720), Baladeva Rath (1779-1845), Devi Krishna Das, Bhakta Charan Das, Abhimanyu, Samanta Sinhar, Bhima-Bhoi (1855-1895), Arakshita Dasa and Gopal Krushna. Upendra Bhanja Das`s Kavyas, based upon Puranic stories, are still looked as masterworks. His Lavanyavati is one excellent such instance of Kavya. Extreme verbal manoeuvre, vulgarism and eroticism as the characters of Shringara Kavyas, became the overriding cult of this period, to which Upendra Bhanja undoubtedly seized the lead role. His creations including, Baidehisha Bilasa, Koti Brahmanda Sundari and Lavanyabati proved benchmarks in Oriya literature. Upendra Bhanja Das was bestowed with the title `Kabi Samrat` of Oriya literature for his aesthetic poetic sense and verbal manoeuvring expertise. Baladeva Rath`s Campu is an inimitable illustration of Oriya musical drama. Family accounts in prose and literature associated exhibiting religious ceremonies and customs were also brought out in huge numbers during this period. Samar Tarang by Brij Natha Badjena (1730-1800), the only instance of historical poem in Oriya literature and Catura Vinoda, a humorous prose work, were brilliant deviations from the literary practices in the current fashion of penning. The casting of the first-ever Oriya printing typeset in 1836 by the Christian missionaries was another milestone of the colonial period in Oriya literature.
In line with printing typeset, an impressive array of books began to be printed and periodicals and journals were also published. The first Oriya Magazine Bodha Dayini was published from Balasore in 1861. The principal objective of this magazine was to encourage and endorse Oriya literature and to attract attention to the careless slips in government policy. The first Oriya paper, The Utkal Deepika, made its appearance in 1866 under the editorship of late Gouri Sankar Ray, with able assistance from late Bichitrananda. The Utkal Deepika carried forward an enthusiastic crusade for bringing together the Oriya-speaking areas under one establishment, development of Oriya language and literature and safeguarding of Oriya interests. In 1869, late Bhagavati Charan Das initiated Utkal Subhakari to spread Brahmo faith. In the last three and half decades of 19th century a number of newspapers were printed in Oriya. High up in the prominence chart were Utkal Deepika, Utkal Patra, Utkal Hiteisini from Cuttack, Utkal Darpan, Sambada Vahika from Balasore and, Sambalpur Hiteisini (30 May, 1889) from Deogarh. The publishing of these papers during the terminating part of the 19th century designated the desire and determination of the people of Orissa to zealously safeguard the right of freedom of expression and freedom of the press, with a view to finally crusading for the freedom of the country from British oppression. However, another great service these periodicals had performed was that they had boosted modern Oriya literature and acted as a media to provide am all-encompassing readers-range for the writers. The educated intellectuals hence had come in close contact with English Literature and in turn, got influenced.
Rai Bahadur Radhanatha Ray (1849-1908), Madhusudana Rao (1853-1912) and Phakiramohana Senapati (1843-1918) were three outstanding poets who brought in a contemporary outlook and force into Oriya literature during the middle of 19th century. Radhanath Ray`s Cilika and Mahayatra wholly state the profound influence of Dante and Milton. Modern Oriya poets include: Sachi Kanta Rauta Ray, Godavarisa Mahapatra, Dr. Mayadhara Manasimha, Nityananda Mahapatra, Kunjabihari Dasa, Prabhasa Chandra Satpati, Radhanath (distinguished for Mahayatra penned in blank verse), Kalindi Charan Panigrahi (Matira Manisha), Mayadhar Mansinha and Gopinath Mohanty (Amritara Santan). Sitakant Mohapatra, a bureaucrat and achiever of the Jnanpith Award, is also a name that fetches much consideration and attention in contemporary Oriya literature.
Even though the 12th century Madala Panji or the Palm-leaf Chronicles of the Jagannatha temple at Puri are deemed as the earliest form of Oriya prose, modern Oriya prose was in fact born only during the British period. Fakir Mohan Senapathi (1843-1918) was a inexhaustible poet and novelist during the imperialist period, who had translated the Ramayana and Mahabharata into Oriya. His novel Chaman Atha Gunta deals with the usurpation and maltreatment of village folks by the zamindar class. Rama Sankara Ray`s Kanci-Kaveri (1880) led to the tremendous birth of modern drama in modern Oriya literature.
Nanda-Kisora Bala, Gopala Chandra Praharaja, Gangadhara Mehera, Chintamani Mahanti and Kuntala-Kumari Sabat Utkala-bharati, Niladri Dasa and Gopabandhu Dasa (1877-1928) were the most extraordinary Oriya writers, belonging to the 20th century. The most far-famed novelists in Oriya literature comprised: Umesa Sarakara, Divyasimha Panigrahi, Gopala Praharaja and Kalindi Charana Panigrahi. Genres like criticism, essays and history also became significant lines of composing in the Oriya language. Honoured writers in this field consist of: Professor Girija Shankar Ray, Pandit Vinayaka Misra, Professor Gauri Kumara Brahma, Jagabandhu Simha and Hare Krushna Mahatab. The two brothers, Ramashankara Ray and Gaurisankara Ray, were trailblazers in genres of drama, fiction and journalism. Visvanatha Kara and Nilamani Vidyaratna also had vigorously tried to uphold Oriya literature through their magazines.
With the crucial materialisation of the Soviet Union in 1935, a Communist party was established in Orissa and a periodical called Adhunika was printed in this regard. Indeed, the creation of Soviet Union was a pathbreaking influence and definition in Oriya literature, which was solely borne by the fact of Marxism. The age was thus renamed as the Pragati Yuga, still remaining a cult. Bhagawati Charan Panigrahi and Sachidananda Routray were the founding members of the periodical Adhunika and also served as writers and poets for the party. Bhagwati Charan Panigrahi later became a fiction writer and though Sachidananda Routray (also acknowledged as "Sachi Routra" or Sachi Babu) had penned some short stories, was primarily memorialised best for his poems. Sachi Babu is also regarded as the founder of modern poetry in Orissa. He was the principal figure to bring in two European trends of English modernism, comprising - the early aestheticist phase pioneered by Pound and T.S. Eliot (1910-1930), and the second wave of modernism of the 1930s poets (Auden, Spender, MacNeice, Isherwood) to Oriya literature by way of his poetry.
Oriya literature indeed was not only restricted to customary poetry and novel or short story, it was also intensely influenced by romanticism, renaming this period as Sabuja Yuga. Charmed by the romantic thoughts of Rabindranath Tagore, during the 1930s, when the progressive Marxian movements were in full flood in Oriya Literature, Kalindi Charan Panigrahi, brother of Bhagabati Charan Panigrahi, founder of Marxian Trend in Orissa, established a group circa 1920 named "Sabuja Samiti." The Samiti was formed together with two of his writer friends, Annada Shankar Ray and Baikuntha Patnaik. Conceivably this was the very short-surviving period in Oriya Literature and later sunk with either Gandhian thoughts or Marxian thoughts. Still later, Kalindi Charan Panigrahi penned his legendary novel Matira Manish, being influenced by Gandhism. Annada Shankar Ray however had flown away to Bengali literature. Mayadhar Mansingh was a distinguished poet of that time, though he was regarded as a romantic poet. He although was triumphant to keep himself distanced and aloof from the influence of Rabindranath Tagore.
Modern Oriya literature travelled as far as to delve itself in feminism and engross in successful women`s writings. The starting of a woman`s magazine named Sucharita in 1975 went a long way in facilitating women writers discover a `voice`. In fact the magazine`s appearance proved to be the pivotal turning point. The role of Sucharita in helping in the materialisation of women`s writing as a potential body of work was never overrated in the critics circle. Jayanti Ratha, Susmita Bagchi, Paramita Satpathy, Hiranmayee Mishra, Chirashree Indra Singh Supriya Panda, Gayatri Saraf, Mamata Chowdhury are a few fiction writers in this period in Oriya literature. But among all the women writers, Sarojini Sahoo essayed a momentous role for her feministic and sexuality point of view in fiction. For feminism, Sarojini Sahoo is considered the undisputable and undefeated. According to Sarojini Sahoo, the women are "Other" from masculine point of view but as a human being, she calls for similar right as Plato had once recommended.
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